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Deer populations have dramatically increased over the last decades in Western Europe and their browsing has affected forest vegetation, especially plant community composition. High deer browsing pressure may threaten forest ecosystems and needs to be assessed over the long run. However, few studies to date have addressed the long-term impact of deer on forest regeneration.

During one regeneration phase, we assessed the impact of deer (Cervus elaphus L and Capreolus capreolus L) browsing on mixed silver fir (Abies alba Mill.)/Norway spruce (Picea abies L. H. Karst.) stands in the Vosges Mountains in North-eastern France. For both tree species, we measured seedling and sapling density, height and diameter in 28 paired fenced - unfenced plots distributed over two sites that had been fenced 27 years ago, for 10 and 23 years respectively.

We demonstrated that the presence of deer decreased the density, height and diameter of silver fir saplings, while it increased the height of Norway spruce saplings. We also noticed that the effect of fencing was very different depending on fencing duration, and that even 10 years of fencing led to changes that were still visible 17 years later.

Our results confirm that deer browsing has a long-term impact on the regeneration of silver fir. Furthermore, they suggest that deer browsing may cause a species substitution, with Norway spruce gradually replacing silver fir. Such a trend would have an impact on the ecological and economical value of these forests. How browsing impacts the forest's ability to adapt to global warming should also be considered, since browsing might impede the implementation of management policies designed to address this issue. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.